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Explaining Student and Home Variance of Chinese Reading Achievement of the PIRLS 2011 Hong Kong

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Title: Explaining Student and Home Variance of Chinese Reading Achievement of the PIRLS 2011 Hong Kong
Language: English
Authors: Cheung, Wai Ming (ORCID 0000-0001-9356-7732), Lam, Joseph W. I., Au, Doreen W. H., So, Wendy W. Y., Huang, Yanli, Tsang, Hector W. H.
Source: Psychology in the Schools. Nov 2017 54(9):889-904.
Availability: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2017
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Grade 4
Descriptors: Achievement Tests, Foreign Countries, Grade 4, International Assessment, Reading Tests, Reading Achievement, Structural Equation Models, Parent Background, Self Efficacy, Family Environment, Reading Skills, Books, Chinese
Geographic Terms: Hong Kong
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Progress in International Reading Literacy Study
DOI: 10.1002/pits.22041
ISSN: 0033-3085
Abstract: Hong Kong attained the top place in the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011, an international study of reading achievement, which arouses keen interest in understanding the reasons behind this remarkable achievement. Although factors associated with reading achievement in English have been widely studied, similar studies using Chinese as a different language system are limited. The present study proposes and tests a hypothetical model that attempts to explain the variance of reading achievement of Hong Kong pupils in the PIRLS 2011 study, focusing on parental and student factors. Data of 3,875 fourth graders from 132 primary schools and their parents or caregivers (n = 3,682) are involved in the analysis. Structural equation modeling supports the hypothesized model as tenable explaining 34% of the variance of reading achievement. Parental background acts as the fundamental factor that exerts an indirect effect on reading motivation, reading self-efficacy, and reading achievement of students via books at home and early reading abilities. Reading motivation and reading self-efficacy are found to be significant in influencing reading achievement. Implications for educational practices and future research are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2017
Accession Number: EJ1156659
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0125582096;pis01nov.17;2018Jul12.07:56;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0125582096-1">Explaining student and home variance of Chinese reading achievement of the PIRLS 2011 Hong Kong. </title> <p>Hong Kong attained the top place in the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011, an international study of reading achievement, which arouses keen interest in understanding the reasons behind this remarkable achievement. Although factors associated with reading achievement in English have been widely studied, similar studies using Chinese as a different language system are limited. The present study proposes and tests a hypothetical model that attempts to explain the variance of reading achievement of Hong Kong pupils in the PIRLS 2011 study, focusing on parental and student factors. Data of 3,875 fourth graders from 132 primary schools and their parents or caregivers (n = 3,682) are involved in the analysis. Structural equation modeling supports the hypothesized model as tenable explaining 34% of the variance of reading achievement. Parental background acts as the fundamental factor that exerts an indirect effect on reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement of students via books at home and early reading abilities. Reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy are found to be significant in influencing reading achievement. Implications for educational practices and future research are discussed.</p> <p>Chinese reading; home factor; PIRLS; reading achievements; structural equation modeling; student factor</p> <p>Universal literacy is a major concern of educational system across the globe. The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) are two large‐scale international assessments that intended to construct benchmarks of literacy competency for the 21st century. The former assesses the reading literacy of Grade 4 students, whereas the latter measures mathematics, science, and reading performance of 15‐year‐old school pupils.</p> <p>Hong Kong has attained top places in the most recently published results of PIRLS and PISA, which are the world's most recognized “international educational rankings.” In PIRLS 2011, Hong Kong ranked the first among 49 participating countries and regions (TIMSS and PIRLS International Study Center, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref1">59</reflink>] ). In the PISA 2012, it was the second among 65 countries/ regions (OECD, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref2">42</reflink>] ). Researchers are impressed by the remarkable reading achievements of pupils in Hong Kong and have had keen interest in understanding the reasons that have led to such a success. Indeed, better understanding on the contributing factors of Chinese reading competence is important for identifying the universal aspects of reading (Perfetti, Cao, & Booth, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref3">46</reflink>] ), given that the research effort in past decade was largely based on studies of reading English (Share, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref4">52</reflink>] ). Although a cluster of factors have been identified as crucial to reading achievement, findings are mainly from studies related to the reading development of English in the context of western culture. Our study intends to fill the gap in investigating the factors that contribute to pupils’ Chinese reading achievement in the context of Chinese culture.</p> <p>English and Chinese are two different language systems. They require different levels of morphological awareness, phonological awareness, and visual skills. For English, the phonemic nature of the alphabetic orthography guides spoken to written English, thus facilitating the ability to read (McBride‐Chang & Ho, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref5">35</reflink>] ; Purcell‐Gates, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref6">50</reflink>] ). As to Chinese, it is primarily a morphographic language that its basic writing unit, the character, directly maps onto the morpheme rather than phoneme (Tong & McBride‐Chang, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref7">60</reflink>] ). The majority (80–90%) of the Chinese characters are semantic–phonetic characters (e.g., Shu, Chen, Anderson, Wu, & Xuan, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref8">54</reflink>] ) that comprise both a semantic and a phonetic radical within each character, which provide cues to both the sound and meaning of a given character. Findings suggest that learning of English mainly depends on the phonological function, whereas learning of Chinese involves both phonological and visual functions (Opitz, Schneiders, Krick, & Mecklinger, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref9">44</reflink>] ; Tse, Thanapalan, & Chan, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref10">62</reflink>] ). That said, the difference of writing systems between English and Chinese may influence both the ease and the rate with which the reading skills can be acquired (Yang, Shu, McCandliss, & Zevin, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref11">73</reflink>] ). Hence, there is a need to unravel the universalities and specifications regarding the influencing factors in the process of Chinese reading.</p> <p>In Chinese societies such as the mainland, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, there are some distinctive characteristics on children's education under the Confucian values. For example, Chinese parents tend to place greater emphasis on children's education than Westerners (Chao, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref12">7</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref13">8</reflink>] ) and have stronger demand in ensuring that children start learning at an early age before school (Li & Rao, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref14">30</reflink>] ; Phillipson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref15">47</reflink>] ; Wong & Fleer, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref16">72</reflink>] ). Chinese teachers and parents have high expectation on their students and children to succeed via education (Sollenberger, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref17">56</reflink>] ), which serves an important source of motivation for students to learn (Leung, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref18">29</reflink>] ). For instance, educators place a high value on extrinsic motivation (e.g., making effort to succeed) in learning in Asian context whereas on intrinsic motivation in western context (Leung, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref19">29</reflink>] ). This is in line with the view that western people tend to have self‐benefiting motivation, whereas Asian people tend to derive motivation from benefiting others or a group (Walker & Debus, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref20">66</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Given the differences between English and Chinese language systems and the distinctive characteristics of Chinese parents under the Confucian culture, such as emphasis on education, effort and learning, high demands and expectations on success, and beliefs of the importance of parents’ support (Ng, Pomerantz, & Lam, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref21">41</reflink>] ; Wong & Fleer, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref22">72</reflink>] ), the present study focuses on the effect of parental or home factors and the interrelationships between home factors and students factors on students’ reading achievement based on the Hong Kong data obtained from the PIRLS 2011. Before elaborating the specific research questions we aim to test a hypothetical model that is proposed in the current study following a comprehensive literature review relating to parental or home factors and its interactive effect with student factors on students’ reading achievement.</p> <p>Much evidence has demonstrated that parental background such as socioeconomic status (SES) and educational level is significantly associated with children's reading achievement in both Western and Chinese cultural contexts (e.g., Aikens & Barbarin, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref23">1</reflink>] ; Chiu & McBride‐Chang, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref24">12</reflink>] ; Kieffer, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref25">23</reflink>] ; Shera, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref26">53</reflink>] ). As to the relationship between family SES and early reading ability, the general agreement is that children from higher SES families will have better early reading ability (e.g., Aikens & Barbarin, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref27">1</reflink>] ; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref28">55</reflink>] ). However, there is less consensus as to how the relationship between SES and reading achievement changes over time. Some researchers suggest that the relationship may become stronger in later grades but some argue that it may become weaker (Aikens & Barbarin, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref29">1</reflink>] ; Catts, Hogan, & Adlof, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref30">6</reflink>] ; Kieffer, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref31">23</reflink>] ).</p> <p>For the effect of parental education level on children's reading achievement, positive significant relationship was found in both western countries and Hong Kong (Myrberg & Rosén, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref32">39</reflink>] , [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref33">40</reflink>] ). However, the effect size (r =.14) of parental education level on Hong Kong students’ reading achievement is much lower than western countries such as Hungary (r =.58) and France (r =.51) (Myrberg & Rosén, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref34">39</reflink>] ). Myrberg and Rosén ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref35">39</reflink>] ) also found that the direct and indirect effects of parental education on students’ reading achievement that were quite different across countries. For Hong Kong, the effect was largely mediated by variables such as home library, early reading activities, and early reading abilities; whereas for Hungary as an example, the effect was mostly a direct one; for Italy as another example, the direct effect was larger than indirect one.</p> <p>As explained by Kieffer ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref36">23</reflink>] ), the positive association between parental background and reading achievement is attributable to material and educational resources available for children's literacy development. Parental involvement is generally viewed as a positive influence on students’ reading motivation and achievement (Cho & Campbell, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref37">13</reflink>] ; Garn, Matthews, & Jolly, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref38">16</reflink>] ; Pomerantz, Grolnick, & Price, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref39">48</reflink>] ; Toren, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref40">61</reflink>] ). It can be shown from the finding that children from lower SES families had fewer books at home compared to those from higher SES families (Larson, Russ, Nelson, Olson, & Halfon, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref41">25</reflink>] ; Omori, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref42">43</reflink>] ). As parents having higher education spent more on books than those with lower education, more books at home were available for children whose parents had higher education (Myrberg & Rosén, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref43">40</reflink>] ). Such literacy resources such as books available at home could benefit children not only for the availability of print and thus exposure to texts, but also for gaining a better development of language skills and knowledge (Myrberg & Rosén, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref44">39</reflink>] ). This was also found to make significant contribution to students' reading attitude (Tse, Xiao, & Lam, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref45">64</reflink>] ; Wang, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref46">70</reflink>] ), reading motivation, and achievement (Chiu & McBride‐Chang, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref47">12</reflink>] ; Park, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref48">45</reflink>] ; Zhou & Salili, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref49">74</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Other than the direct effect of parental background on students’ reading achievement, parental background could also have an indirect effect on students’ reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement indirectly via books at home and early reading abilities (Chatterji, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref50">9</reflink>] ; Chiu & McBride‐Chang, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref51">12</reflink>] ; Morris, Bloodgood, & Perney, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref52">36</reflink>] ; Myrberg & Rosén, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref53">40</reflink>] ; Park, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref54">45</reflink>] ; Zhou & Salili, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref55">74</reflink>] ). Increasing evidence has shown the relationship between reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement. Wang and Guthrie ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref56">68</reflink>] ) found that U.S. and Chinese children's intrinsic motivation had a significant strong positive association with reading achievement (see also Gottfried, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref57">17</reflink>] ). Reading self‐efficacy refers to students’ self‐belief and self‐perception related to their reading ability, which has been shown to be associated with reading achievement (e.g., Bong & Skaalvik, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref58">5</reflink>] ; Marsh, Hau, & Kong, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref59">33</reflink>] ; Multon, Brown, & Lent, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref60">38</reflink>] ; Valentine, DuBois, & Cooper, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref61">65</reflink>] ; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez‐Pons, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref62">75</reflink>] ). House ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref63">21</reflink>] ) showed that students’ self‐belief, enjoyment of reading, perception of reading easiness in reading comprehension were significantly related to their reading achievement in the PIRLS 2001.</p> <p>Based on the above review, a hypothetical model is proposed on the effect of parental factors (e.g., parental background and books at home) on students’ reading achievement and its interrelationship with student factors (e.g., early reading abilities, reading motivation, and self‐efficacy) to explain the contribution to reading achievement of the Hong Kong students in the PIRLS 2011. Based on the model, we formulate a few hypotheses. First, parental background would have a direct impact on reading achievement. Second, it has also an indirect influence on students’ reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement via books at home and early reading abilities. Third, reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy are significant factors that influence reading achievement.</p> <p>To recapitulate, the present study aims to investigate the effect of parental factors and student factors on students’ reading achievement attained by Hong Kong students in the PIRLS 2011. Crucial factors that contributed to the reading achievement can be identified based on findings from the literature. However, there is a dearth of studies that are based on the achievement for Chinese reading in the Chinese context (e.g., Lau, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref64">26</reflink>] ; Lau & Chan, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref65">27</reflink>] ; Law, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref66">28</reflink>] ) and a comprehensive model is lacking to investigate the parental and student factors at the same time and the pathways from parental factors (family SES and parental educational level), via books at home and early reading abilities, to students factors (reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy) that contribute to students’ reading achievement. The present study proposes and tests a hypothetical model including the factors mentioned above with attempts to explain the variance of reading achievement of Hong Kong pupils and the three relating hypotheses, which can provide us with a better understanding on Chinese reading. This study facilitates identification of the universal aspects of reading, which allows future comparisons across a wider range of alphabetic and nonalphabetic languages.</p> <hd id="AN0125582096-2">2 METHOD</hd> <hd id="AN0125582096-3">2.1 Sample</hd> <p>The sample was based on the PIRLS 2011 Hong Kong Study, there were 4,189 students from 132 elementary schools involved and 3,875 of them completed the reading comprehension test and student questionnaire. Among them, 53.3% (n = 2,066) were males and 46.7% (n = 1,809) were females with a mean age of 10.2 (SD =.49). Besides, 3,682 parents or caregivers completed the home questionnaire. Among them, 72.5% (n = 2,671) were mothers, 25.9% (n = 953) were fathers and the remaining 1.6% (n = 58) were completed either by both parents or other caregivers. Parental background is also collected including family SES and parental educational level. The demographic information of students is presented in Table [NaN] .</p> <p>Demographic information of students</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tr><th /><th>n</th><th align="left">%</th><th>n</th><th align="left">%</th></tr><tr><td>Gender</td></tr><tr><td>Boys</td><td>2,066</td><td>53.3</td><td /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td>Girls</td><td>1,809</td><td>46.7</td><td /><td align="left" /></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tr><th>Parental background</th><th>Father's education</th><th>Mother's education</th></tr><tr><td>Did not go to school</td><td>27</td><td>.8</td><td>29</td><td align="char" char=".">.9</td></tr><tr><td>Did not graduate from junior high</td><td>566</td><td>17.0</td><td>519</td><td align="char" char=".">15.5</td></tr><tr><td>Junior high graduate</td><td>887</td><td>26.7</td><td>924</td><td align="char" char=".">27.5</td></tr><tr><td>High school graduate</td><td>1,091</td><td>32.8</td><td>1,271</td><td align="char" char=".">37.9</td></tr><tr><td>Vocational education, technical institution, etc.</td><td>93</td><td>2.8</td><td>81</td><td align="char" char=".">2.4</td></tr><tr><td>Higher diploma or associate degree</td><td>131</td><td>3.9</td><td>168</td><td align="char" char=".">5.0</td></tr><tr><td>Bachelor degree</td><td>340</td><td>10.2</td><td>260</td><td align="char" char=".">7.7</td></tr><tr><td>Master degree or above</td><td>162</td><td>4.9</td><td>78</td><td align="char" char=".">2.3</td></tr><tr><td>Not applicable</td><td>29</td><td>.9</td><td>25</td><td align="char" char=".">.7</td></tr><tr><td>Household income (HK$)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Below $7,000</td><td>383</td><td>10.8</td><td /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td>$7,001–$14,000</td><td>1,154</td><td>32.4</td><td /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td>$14,001–$21,000</td><td>656</td><td>18.4</td><td /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td>$21,001–$28,000</td><td>350</td><td>9.8</td><td /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td>$28,001–$36,000</td><td>298</td><td>8.4</td><td /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td>$36,001 or above</td><td>717</td><td>20.2</td><td /><td align="left" /></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0125582096-4">2.2 Measures</hd> <hd id="AN0125582096-5">2.2.1 Reading comprehension test</hd> <p>The PIRLS 2011 reading comprehension test was designed to measure the level of reading achievement among Grade 4 students. The test comprised 10 passages and questions covering texts and topics on classroom experiences. PIRLS used a balanced incomplete block (BIB) design and each student responded to a portion of the test items to reduce fatigue and learning effects resulting from completing a long test. A multiple imputation technique was adopted to derive five sets of plausible values of reading scores for the whole sample. An item response theory (IRT) approach was used to combine and scale pupils’ responses in the test. Separate analyses were run for each plausible value and were subsequently combined into a single value by averaging the resulting statistics. Finally, reading achievement scores were IRT scale scores with an international mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100. The average interscorer reliability for the constructed responses was reported to be 96% agreement between independent scorers in Hong Kong.</p> <hd id="AN0125582096-6">2.2.2 Questionnaires</hd> <p>To tap the contextual factors that affected students’ learning, there were five sets of questionnaires available in the PIRLS 2011, including the student, the home, the teacher, the school, and the curriculum questionnaires. The student questionnaire included questions of students’ self‐perception and attitudes toward reading, learning environment at home and schools, and basic demographic information. In the home questionnaire, the items were about students’ early reading experiences, parent–child interactions of reading activities, and parents’ reading attitudes and habits. The teacher questionnaire was used to assess teachers’ experience in teaching reading, instructional activities and materials, their education level, and professional development. The school questionnaire was used for principals to answer questions about school levels, such as school environment and characteristics, organization, resources, and school–home connections. The curriculum questionnaire focused on the organization and content of the language/reading curriculum.</p> <p>For the purpose of this study, we used the derived variables that the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) had computed from responses on the student and the home questionnaires, which have been validated by Lam et al. ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref67">24</reflink>] ) and Cheung, Lam, Au, Tsang, and Chan ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref68">11</reflink>] ). Table [NaN] presents the description of the factor components and their source questionnaires for the information. Three factors (i.e., parental background, books at home, early reading abilities) were derived from the home questionnaire. For the factor on early reading abilities, as the way to learn Chinese characters is different from English words, “recognize and write alphabets” in (i) and (iv) were changed to components that constituted the basic unit of learning Chinese characters (Wang & Zou, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref69">69</reflink>] ). Items in the factor on early reading abilities were presented as statements to be answered following a four‐point scale ranging from “very well” to “not at all.” The two factors (reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy) were derived from the student questionnaire, in which items were answered on a four‐point scale: ‘‘agree a lot,’’ “agree a little,” “disagree a little,” and “disagree a lot.” Three items in the factor of reading self‐efficacy were reversely scored, which were asterisk marked in Table [NaN] . Therefore, for the parent background factors (parental background and books at home), higher scores represent better family SES, higher education level, and more books at home, whereas in the other three factors smaller scores represent better early reading abilities, higher reading motivation, and higher reading self‐efficacy.</p> <p>Descriptions of the factor components and source of information</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tr><th>Factors</th><th>Variable and Descriptions</th><th>Source</th></tr><tr><td>Parental background</td><td>Father's education; mother's education, and household income</td><td>Home</td></tr><tr><td>Books at home</td><td>Items: books at home (About how many books are there in your home?) and children books at home (About how many children's books are there in your home?)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Early reading abilities</td><td>Items: “How well could you child…..when he/she began primary school?”<p>(i)Recognize most of the components (辨認大部份部件)</p><p>(ii) Read some words</p><p>(iii) Read sentences</p><p>(iv) Write components (能寫部件)</p><p>(v) Write some words</p>(Response choices: very well, moderately well, not very well, not at all)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Reading motivation</td><td>Items: “Do you read because…..<p>(i) you like to read things that make you think?”</p><p>(ii) it is important to be a good reader?”</p><p>(iii) parents like you to read?”</p><p>(iv) you learn a lot from reading?”</p><p>(v) you need to read well for your future?”</p><p>(vi) books help you imagine other worlds?”</p>(Response choices: agree a lot, agree a little, disagree a little, disagree a lot)</td><td>Student</td></tr><tr><td>Reading self‐efficacy</td><td>Items: “How well do you read? Tell how much you agree with each of these statements.”)<p>(i) Doing well in reading (I usually do well in reading) (to be deleted)</p><p>(ii) Reading is easy (Reading is easy for me) (to be deleted)</p><p>(iii) Reading is hard (Reading is harder for me than for many of my classmates.*)</p><p>(vi) Don't care how hard (if a book is interesting, I don't care how hard it is to read) (to be deleted)</p><p>(v) Trouble in reading (I have trouble reading stories with difficult words.*)</p><p>(vi) Being told a good reader (My teacher tells me I am a good reader) (to be deleted)</p><p>(vii) Reading is harder than other subject (Reading is harder for me than any other subject.*)</p>(Response choices: agree a lot, agree a little, disagree a little, disagree a lot)</td><td /></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0125582096-7">2.3 Procedure</hd> <p>The data collection period was between March and May in the school year 2010/2011. A two‐stage stratified cluster sampling was adopted. The first and the second stages referred to a sampling of schools and a sampling of intact classrooms from the target grade in the sampled schools, respectively. Schools were sampled using systematic random sampling with a probability proportional to their measure of size. Within each sampled school, all fourth‐grade classes were listed and one class was randomly sampled. One hundred and thirty‐two elementary schools located in 18 districts of Hong Kong eventually took part in the PIRLS 2011.</p> <p>Students’ reading comprehension was assessed in a reading comprehension test including two separate passages in Chinese, which were selected from the 10 passages described in the measures section. One was an information‐giving passage, such as descriptions, instructions, data, and tables, and the other was a literary, narrative passage, such as stories, poems, and fables. In addition to the reading comprehension test that measured students’ reading literacy, the sampled students and their parents or guardians, Chinese language teachers, and school principals of the participating schools were also invited to complete questionnaires so as to tap the important contextual information that studies had shown to be effective in enhancing reading achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0125582096-8">2.4 Data analyses</hd> <p>Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) (AMOS 23.0) was conducted to test the measurement model. To ensure that all the items were reliable measures of their respective factors, a cutoff was set at.50 as factor loadings of.50 or greater are considered practically significant (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref70">19</reflink>] ; Muilenburg & Berge, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref71">37</reflink>] ), and thus items with factor loadings less than.50 were excluded. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were calculated to evaluate the internal consistency of the factors. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to test the hypothesized model. Conventional chi‐square test was used to evaluate whether there was any significant deviation of the data from the model. Taken into account that this test is sensitive to sample size, leading models with large samples being rejected, a number of fit statistics were employed with more reliance to assess the model fit. These model‐fit statistics included the comparative fit index (CFI), the root mean‐square error of approximation (RMSEA), the normed fit index (NFI), and the non‐normed fit index (NNFI). According to Hu and Bentler ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref72">22</reflink>] ), values of CFI, NFI, and NNFI should be over.95 so as to be recognized as good fit, whereas for the RMSEA, a value below.08 is considered as a good fit (MacCallum, Browne, & Sugawara, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref73">31</reflink>] ), although Hu and Bentler ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref74">22</reflink>] ) suggested a more stringent cutoff at.06.</p> <hd id="AN0125582096-9">3 RESULTS</hd> <p>SEM was performed to test the measurement model and the hypothesized model. The results are as follows.</p> <hd id="AN0125582096-10">3.1 Measurement model</hd> <p>Two steps were conducted to test the measurement model. Table [NaN] shows the original hypothesized measurement model, including five factors and their respective observed variables. The relationships between factors and their observed variables are expressed by standardized loadings, which are conceptually equal to the standardized regression coefficients. That means, by squaring the standardized loading, the amount of variance in the observed variables accounted for the variables of the corresponding factors (Myrberg & Rosén, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref75">39</reflink>] ). Given that the scoring methods for items in the five factors in the present proposed model were not the same (i.e., for parental background and books at home, larger number represents better family SES, higher education level, and more books at home; conversely, in the other three factors, smaller number refers to better early reading abilities, higher reading motivation, and higher reading self‐efficacy), scores in the factors of early reading abilities, reading motivation, and reading self‐efficacy were reversed before conducting the CFA. The factor loadings of four items ((i) doing well in reading, (ii) reading is easy, (iii) don't care how hard, and (iv) being told a good reader) in the factor of reading self‐efficacy were below.50 and model fit was not good (CFI <.90, RMSEA >.08, NFI <.90, and NNFI <.90). With the agreement of the expert panel, the four items were deleted and not included in further analysis. Another CFA was then conducted with the factor loadings of the remaining items all above.50 and with a range from.54 to.88. This reflected that all the remaining items were reliable measures of the factors (see Figure [NaN] ). The model was proper and supported by good model‐fit indices (CFI =.97, RMSEA =.04, NFI =.96, and NNFI =.96). The results of the Cronbach's alpha coefficients provided further evidence for the reliability of the measurement model, as the alpha values for the factors ranged from.71 to.90, indicating that all the factors were internally consistent (see Table [NaN] ).</p> <p>Internal consistency of the latent variables, and direct, indirect, and total effects of different variables on reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tr><th /><th align="left">Internal Consistency</th><th>Reading Motivation</th><th>Reading Self‐Efficacy</th><th align="left">Reading Achievement</th></tr><tr><th /><th>α</th><th>Direct</th><th>Indirect</th><th align="left">Total</th><th>Direct</th><th>Indirect</th><th align="left">Total</th><th align="left">Direct</th><th align="left">Indirect</th><th align="left">Total</th></tr><tr><td>Parental background</td><td>.81</td><td>‐</td><td align="char" char=".">.10</td><td align="char" char=".">.10</td><td>‐</td><td align="char" char=".">.11</td><td align="char" char=".">.11</td><td>.07</td><td align="char" char=".">.10</td><td>.16</td></tr><tr><td>Books at home</td><td>.79</td><td align="char" char=".">.15</td><td>‐</td><td align="char" char=".">.15</td><td align="char" char=".">.13</td><td>‐</td><td align="char" char=".">.13</td><td>.03</td><td align="char" char=".">.06</td><td>.09</td></tr><tr><td>Early reading abilities</td><td>.90</td><td align="char" char=".">.11</td><td>‐</td><td align="char" char=".">.11</td><td align="char" char=".">.27</td><td>‐</td><td align="char" char=".">.27</td><td>.31</td><td align="char" char=".">.11</td><td>.42</td></tr><tr><td>Reading motivation</td><td>.86</td><td>‐</td><td>‐</td><td align="left">‐</td><td>‐</td><td>‐</td><td align="left">‐</td><td>.09</td><td align="left">‐</td><td>.09</td></tr><tr><td>Reading self‐efficacy</td><td>.71</td><td>‐</td><td>‐</td><td align="left">‐</td><td>‐</td><td>‐</td><td align="left">‐</td><td>.38</td><td align="left">‐</td><td>.38</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0125582096-11">3.2 Structural model</hd> <p>The hypothesized model (see Figure [NaN] ), which illustrates the relationship between variables on parental background, books at home, early reading abilities, reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement, was tested. Although parental background had a direct effect on reading achievement, it was hypothesized to influence reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement via books at home and early reading abilities. Reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy were expected to have an impact on reading achievement. This hypothesized model was tenable as the various fit indices indicated a very close fit between the data and the model (CFI =.97, RMSEA =.04, NFI =.96, and NNFI =.96). As a whole, the model was able to explain 34% of the variance of the reading achievement (R<sups>2</sups> =.34). The direct, indirect, and total effects of different variables on reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement are presented in Table [NaN] .</p> <p>The total effect of parental background on reading achievement is modest (.16). Most of which was attributed to the indirect effect via other variables (books at home, early reading abilities, reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy). For the indirect effects, there were two pathways for the effect that went from parental background to reading achievement. One was via books at home (.66), and the other was via early reading abilities (.09). Both of which went through reading motivation (.15 and.11, respectively) and reading self‐efficacy (.13 and.27, respectively). The direct effect of books at home (.03) on reading achievement was not significant. Instead, the effect of books at home was mainly mediated through reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy. On the other side, the effect of early reading abilities on reading achievement had both significant direct effect (.31) and indirect effect that was mediated by reading motivation (.11) and reading self‐efficacy (.27). Finally, reading motivation (.09) and reading self‐efficacy (.38) both posed a significant impact on reading achievement.</p> <p>In brief, the effects of parental background on reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement mainly went indirectly via books at home and early reading abilities. The effect of books at home on reading achievement worked mainly indirectly through reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy. Early reading abilities had both direct and indirect effects on reading achievement, of which the indirect part was mediated by reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy. Reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy played a significant role in reading achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0125582096-12">4 DISCUSSION</hd> <p>Although factors associated with reading achievement have been widely studied, findings are mainly from the western context and in relation to the reading development of English, a language system substantially different from Chinese. Results of this study have filled the knowledge gap through explaining the variance for the reading achievement of Hong Kong students based on the data from the PIRLS 2011 study and have enhanced our understanding on factors that may affect the outcomes of Chinese reading. As the distinctive character of Chinese parents in Chinese society, the present study focuses on the home factors as parental background, including family SES and parental education level, with a view to unraveling how home factors contributed to students’ reading achievement in Hong Kong Grade 4 pupils and revealing the mediating effect of student factors and the pathways of the effect from parental background to students’ reading achievement. This study provides implications on how these factors have contributed to the top ranking of Hong Kong students in the international study of PIRLS, which is keen to be known by many researchers. Meanwhile, it also reveals factors that are crucial for the Chinese reading development, which in turn, facilitate understanding of the universal aspects of reading.</p> <p>In the present study, we propose a hypothetical model to explain how home factors contribute to the reading achievement of Hong Kong students in the PIRLS 2011 study that receives support by the SEM results. The model explains 34% of the variance on the reading achievement of Hong Kong pupils. Based on the model, parental background acts as the fundamental factor that exerts an indirect effect on reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement of students via books at home and early reading abilities. Reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy are significant in influencing reading achievement.</p> <p>Our finding is consistent with Myrberg and Rosén's ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref76">39</reflink>] ) that the effect of parental background on reading achievement is an indirect one in Hong Kong, which is different from western countries such as Hungary and Italy showing larger direct effect than indirect effect on students’ reading achievement. The present study also shows that the effect is mainly via books at home and early reading abilities. Its effect on books at home is particularly substantial, meaning that parents with higher education level and household income would have more books at home. This finding is consistent with the results of some previous studies (e.g., Larson et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref77">25</reflink>] ; Myrberg & Rosén, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref78">40</reflink>] ; Omori, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref79">43</reflink>] ). However, the effect of books at home does not directly influence students’ reading achievement. Instead it is mediated by students’ reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy. This finding is original in a sense that previous studies did not consider. Previous studies pointed out the importance of materials and educational resources like books at home for the development of students’ reading achievement. However, this is not the same for Hong Kong students. In Hong Kong, the role of education materials and resources played does not directly lead to reading achievement. The effect is mediated by reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy. This might be particularly attributed to the specific situation in Hong Kong as a densely populated area where educational materials and resources can be easily accessible not only from their own home, but also from rich neighborhoods and communities like intensive established public libraries.</p> <p>Nevertheless, it does not repudiate the importance of parental background and educational resources at home. Instead, these parental factors act as the foundation for students’ development in reading achievement that align with earlier finding that parents’ teaching of literacy skills and storybooks enhances children's letter knowledge, phonological awareness, and vocabulary and predicts reading fluency (Manolitsis, Georgiou, & Tziraki, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref80">32</reflink>] ). In Hong Kong, to boost children's academic performance and to avoid their children being disadvantaged, parents believe that reading books at home with their children after work plays an important role to “grind the iron bar into a needle” (Pong & Chow, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref81">49</reflink>] ; Tse, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref82">63</reflink>] ). The working hours of parents in Hong Kong is usually very long when compared with the western countries. The parents with higher education usually have more stable and shorter working hours. These parents would make better use of the time and take the initiative to read the books more thoroughly at home with their children. This would help the children develop the autonomy to read according to their interests and to control the pace of reading in accordance with the personal reading level (Tse et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref83">64</reflink>] ). The availability of literacy resources in the form of books at home, in turn, has an effect on increasing pupils’ motivation and self‐efficacy to read, although the effect is mild, which on the whole exerts a significant impact on students’ reading achievement.</p> <p>In the other pathway, early reading abilities and reading self‐efficacy are found to be the two most influential factors on reading achievement among all the factors in the model. These two factors are in turn closely related with each other. To enhance reading self‐efficacy, early reading abilities play a significant role on it. It makes better sense when it is put in the context of learning Chinese. As discussed earlier, Chinese is primarily a morphographic language with the majority of the characters being semantic–phonetic compounds in which components carry semantic and phonetic information of the character (Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref84">54</reflink>] ). Given the formation of the characters, learners are required not only to recognize characters as a whole, but also to familiarize major components that construct the characters, as it serves to facilitate recognition of unfamiliar characters (Anderson et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref85">2</reflink>] ). For example, in 媽 (“mother,” pronounced as /ma1/), the right component 馬 (“horse,” pronounced /ma5/) provides pronunciation information of 媽 and the left component 女 (woman) provides semantic information and indicates that the target character has something associated with female. Evidence has shown that with development, children are better at analyzing unknown characters based on the subcomponents of radicals and phonetics (Cheung, Chan, & Chong, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref86">10</reflink>] ; He, Wang, & Anderson, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref87">20</reflink>] ). Radical‐level variables such as radical frequency and position are shown to affect the recognition of characters (Taft & Zhu, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref88">57</reflink>] ; Taft, Zhu, & Peng, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref89">58</reflink>] ; Wang & Peng, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref90">67</reflink>] ). That said, the recognition of components and especially radicals is an important early literacy skill that lays the foundation for the learning of Chinese in formal schooling. It also explains why early reading abilities were found to have quite a strong effect on reading achievement. Children with better foundation in this early literacy skill also tend to have enhanced self‐efficacy in reading.</p> <p>An important implication from the findings of this study is that developing pupils’ reading self‐efficacy and early reading abilities are important for enhancing their reading achievement. Developing pupils’ reading self‐efficacy is even more important than their reading motivation, as it was found to be much more influential on reading achievement. The study also reveals the significance to develop early reading abilities of children before elementary schooling, which poses not only direct impact on the acquisition of Chinese, but also influences pupils’ reading self‐efficacy. Different from western parents, Chinese parents impose greater pressure and stricter rules on their children's academic success and their own parenting on their children's academic achievement (e.g., “academic achievement reflects successful parenting”) (Chua, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref91">14</reflink>] , p. 5). This is also consistent with results of factor analysis in the factor on self‐efficacy, in which only the negative statement remains. Further studies are therefore suggested to develop specific strategies that may be used by Hong Kong parents or teachers to develop the children's reading self‐efficacy and reading abilities at preschool level. Longitudinal studies may be conducted to follow up these preschool children after receiving these special interventions and see if these will translate to improve reading competences when they progress to elementary or even secondary school levels.</p> <p>Regarding the factor of reading self‐efficacy, it should be noted that only three items of seven remain in the present measurement model. An interesting phenomenon is that the three remaining items are all negative statement, which implies one specific circumstance of Hong Kong students’ attitude on reading. Under the Confucian culture in Hong Kong, being humble or modest is considered a “virtue.” Parents in Hong Kong seldom appraise their children's achievement but remind them not to be boastful and continue their efforts to achieve higher standards. Children in Hong Kong in turn tend to express their attitude in a negative way (“… is not hard,” but not saying “… is easy”) to adapt themselves in the Confucian culture. Therefore, in the current model, reading self‐efficacy is found as one of the most influential factors in influencing students’ reading achievement in Hong Kong. The negatively stated items included in this factor show the specific role of reading self‐efficacy among Hong Kong students. However, this is just a post‐hoc explanation. In fact, we did not actually split the factor of reading self‐efficacy into two statement directions in the model. Therefore, future studies should further explore the potential different influences of the different types of statement for students in Hong Kong or comparisons across different cultures.</p> <p>Based on our analysis, the relationship between books at home and early reading abilities and relationship between reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy is not confirmed in the present model. Although the findings are not consistent with previous studies, it provides some insights. For the former relationship, it is possible that some mediating factors play a role in the relationship between books at home and early reading abilities, such as parental involvement, parental attitudes in reading, or children's early reading tasks. Even though it is not the focus of the present study, exploring the underlying mediating factors may help us understand better how education material and resources at home may have contributed to children's early reading abilities and in turn to their reading achievement.</p> <p>As to the relationship between reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy, the items that are positively stated in the factor of reading self‐efficacy have been deleted in the present measurement model. For reading motivation, extrinsic motivation is placed as a high value in Asian context, whereas intrinsic motivation in learning is emphasized in western context (Leung, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref92">29</reflink>] ). In the PIRLS study, items related to extrinsic and intrinsic reading motivation are included in the measurement of reading motivation and it is treated as one factor instead of splitting them into two factors. This is because the model fit was not good if splitting the factor “reading motivation” into two subscales by an additional CFA, which suggested that the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were at the same direction on students’ reading achievement based on the PIRLS 2011 data. This might be the reason why the relationship between reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy measured in the PIRLS 2011 was absent. Therefore, to further explore this relationship, future studies should use more comprehensive measures to test students’ self‐efficacy and motivation for Chinese reading. For example, measure for reading self‐efficacy includes both positive and negative statement items and reading motivation consists of both extrinsic and intrinsic dimensions, and explore whether they act different influences on students’ reading achievement, especially for comparison studies between western and Asian countries.</p> <p>As just mentioned, it is still in debate whether motivation is treated as to be multidimensional that including several factors (Baker & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref93">4</reflink>] ; Guthrie & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref94">18</reflink>] ; Schiefele, Schaffner, Möller, & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref95">51</reflink>] ; Wigfield & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref96">71</reflink>] ) or a one‐dimensional factor (Baker, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref97">3</reflink>] ; Mazzoni, Gambrell, & Korkeamaki, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref98">34</reflink>] ). Here it is treated as one factor as reading motivation that pose significantly positive effect in students’ reading achievement. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the items used in this measurement was not originally designed to measure intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation separately, and thus it should be cautious to generalize the findings. Due to the vagueness of the definition for reading motivation (Conradi, Jang, & McKenna, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref99">15</reflink>] ) and the great variety of measures (Schiefele et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref100">51</reflink>] ) in previous studies, high priority should be routed to reach a consensus on the definition of reading motivation and the use of individual and composite scales in further studies.</p> <p>As it is well known, there are some limitations in employing an analysis from a second hand questionnaire, however, the data are precious as it employed the systematic randomly sampling method to recruit a huge sample of participants, which could not be realized in most of the studies. Therefore, it is very worthwhile to use such kind of data to explore the interrelationships and factors underlying factors that contribute to students’ Chinese reading achievement. In addition, there are still some other limitations that should be noted. One is for the measurement of early reading abilities, which are not directly measured but based on retrospective responses from parents or caregivers. Even though it is an acceptable method to retrospect past events, an in‐depth study that aims at data from direct measurement timely will be followed. Second, only 34% of the variance of reading achievement are explained in the present study, meaning that there is still quite a large portion of variance remaining unexplained. Because the study aims at investigating the individual level of factors that influence reading achievement, the teacher, the school, and the curriculum questionnaires are not included in the analyses. Further research, therefore, could extend the scope of analyses to reach a more holistic understanding on the reading achievement of Hong Kong students.</p> <hd id="AN0125582096-13">5 CONCLUSION</hd> <p>This study explicates the interrelationship between the variables that are important for reading achievement, viz. parental background, books at home, early reading abilities, reading motivation, and reading self‐efficacy. The model that we proposed is able to explain 34% of the variance of reading achievement of Hong Kong pupils based on the PIRLS 2011 study. Apart from revealing the universal aspects of reading, the study has also identified factors specific to the Hong Kong context and for the Chinese language. Parental background acts as the fundamental factor that exerts an indirect effect on reading motivation, reading self‐efficacy, and reading achievement of students via books at home and early reading abilities. Reading motivation and reading self‐efficacy are found to be significant in influencing reading achievement. The findings highlight the importance of developing early reading abilities of children, which lays critical foundation for the Chinese language acquisition and is influential on the development of their reading self‐efficacy. Both early reading abilities and reading self‐efficacy are demonstrated to be significant factors influencing students’ reading achievement.</p> <ref id="AN0125582096-14"> <title>REFERENCES</title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref23" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext>Aikens, N. L., & Barbarin, O. ( 2008 ). Socioeconomic differences in reading trajectories: The contribution of family, neighborhood, and school contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 235 – 251. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.2.235 </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref85" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext>Anderson, R. 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Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312029003663 </bibtext> </blist> </ref> <p>Graph: Measurement model with observed and latent variables Note. Chi‐square: 1,123.27; degree of freedom: 142; p <.001; NFI:.96; TLI:.96; CFI:.97; RMSEA:.04; the values refers to the standardized estimates of loadings of the factors on the corresponding observed variables.</p> <p>Graph: Structural equation model with direct and indirect effects of parental background on students’ reading achievement Note. ***p <.001, **p <.05, *p <.10. Chi‐square: 1,289.19; degree of freedom: 160; p <.001; NFI:.96; TLI:.95; CFI:.96; RMSEA:.04; the values refers to the standardized estimates of relations between the factors.</p> <aug> <p>By Wai Ming Cheung; Joseph W. I. Lam; Doreen W. H. Au; Wendy W. Y. So; Yanli Huang and Hector W. H. Tsang</p> </aug>
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  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Hong Kong attained the top place in the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011, an international study of reading achievement, which arouses keen interest in understanding the reasons behind this remarkable achievement. Although factors associated with reading achievement in English have been widely studied, similar studies using Chinese as a different language system are limited. The present study proposes and tests a hypothetical model that attempts to explain the variance of reading achievement of Hong Kong pupils in the PIRLS 2011 study, focusing on parental and student factors. Data of 3,875 fourth graders from 132 primary schools and their parents or caregivers (n = 3,682) are involved in the analysis. Structural equation modeling supports the hypothesized model as tenable explaining 34% of the variance of reading achievement. Parental background acts as the fundamental factor that exerts an indirect effect on reading motivation, reading self-efficacy, and reading achievement of students via books at home and early reading abilities. Reading motivation and reading self-efficacy are found to be significant in influencing reading achievement. Implications for educational practices and future research are discussed.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2017
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1156659
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RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/pits.22041
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 16
        StartPage: 889
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Explaining Student and Home Variance of Chinese Reading Achievement of the PIRLS 2011 Hong Kong
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
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      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Cheung, Wai Ming
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lam, Joseph W. I.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Au, Doreen W. H.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: So, Wendy W. Y.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Huang, Yanli
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Tsang, Hector W. H.
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      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 11
              Type: published
              Y: 2017
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0033-3085
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 54
            – Type: issue
              Value: 9
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Psychology in the Schools
              Type: main
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