Academic Journal
The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function: A Comparative Study Among Active, Passive, and Non-Procrastinating College Students
| Title: | The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function: A Comparative Study Among Active, Passive, and Non-Procrastinating College Students |
|---|---|
| Authors: | Chentao Liu, Juanjuan Zhang |
| Source: | Behavioral Sciences, Vol 15, Iss 2, p 225 (2025) |
| Publisher Information: | MDPI AG, 2025. |
| Publication Year: | 2025 |
| Collection: | LCC:Psychology |
| Subject Terms: | aerobic exercise, active procrastination, passive procrastination, non-procrastination, executive function, Psychology, BF1-990 |
| More Details: | Objective: This study aims to explore the effects of an aerobic exercise intervention on the executive functions of active, passive, and non-procrastinating college students. Methods: A total of 190 college students (36 male, 154 female, 19.56 ± 1.11 years old) with different types of procrastination were recruited from the first and second years of a university using the General Procrastination Scale and the Active Procrastination Scale. A 3 (procrastination type: active procrastination, passive procrastination, non-procrastination) × 2 (group: exercise group, control group) × 2 (measurement time: pre-test, post-test) mixed experimental design was employed. All participants attended regular physical education classes as usual, while the exercise group participated in an 8 week aerobic exercise program. Before and after the intervention, the inhibition, updating, and switching sub-functions of executive function were assessed. Results: (1) Active procrastinators and passive procrastinators showed significant differences in their inhibition scores, inhibition accuracy, updating scores, and updating accuracy (p < 0.05). Non-procrastinators exhibited a significantly higher inhibition accuracy than passive procrastinators (p < 0.05), while active procrastinators had a significantly higher updating accuracy than non-procrastinators (p < 0.05). As can be seen, there were significant differences in inhibition and updating functions between active procrastinators and passive procrastinators, with passive procrastinators showing obvious deficiencies in their inhibition accuracy. (2) After the intervention, the aerobic exercise group of non-procrastinators showed a significant reduction in their inhibition reaction time and updating reaction time (p < 0.05). The passive procrastination in the exercise group showed significant improvements in switching accuracy and inhibition accuracy (p < 0.05). The active procrastination in the exercise group showed a significant reduction in updating reaction time (p < 0.05). From the above findings, it is clear that the eight-week aerobic exercise intervention has shown improvement effects on the executive function of college students with different procrastination types, and the extent of the improvement in each sub-function of executive function varies depending on the type of procrastination. Conclusion: This study reveals the relationship between exercise and the development of the sub-functions of executive function in college students with procrastination, further validating the effectiveness and feasibility of implementing exercise interventions in real-world school settings. |
| Document Type: | article |
| File Description: | electronic resource |
| Language: | English |
| ISSN: | 2076-328X |
| Relation: | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/15/2/225; https://doaj.org/toc/2076-328X |
| DOI: | 10.3390/bs15020225 |
| Access URL: | https://doaj.org/article/72f13b82f5bd41409c2cda4dc910167d |
| Accession Number: | edsdoj.72f13b82f5bd41409c2cda4dc910167d |
| Database: | Directory of Open Access Journals |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHjPtM4BHU3ZchRwgzYmadcigk49r9CVlbU7V5F6lgH7WwF5Oanp9Bxg8n0u7fvP1clbAAAA4jCB3wYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHRMIHOAgEAMIHIBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDMpTmWyWV5TuLdwmiwIBEICBmrUKLylPWNK4al7O7yHaQjUUVWmSpxjJlr3k-If7DcefHUMwS8sdtqqrqPAkCYFsSHWaoJep_1FtOF9kt1gS-nTXcVV441AfEhcbZyrLlsSDnHftEC08UB9rFsObEWbFq7VjKdDsc2rr7lT9rk9d33nGit9ovgisfW7wdn9D5zVVIlu6ZyzjPwlxAUek1zMF6yG0n0R0h9sP83A= Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0183345938;[fdu1]01feb.25;2025Mar03.05:18;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183345938-1">The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function: A Comparative Study Among Active, Passive, and Non-Procrastinating College Students </title> <p>Objective: This study aims to explore the effects of an aerobic exercise intervention on the executive functions of active, passive, and non-procrastinating college students. Methods: A total of 190 college students (36 male, 154 female, 19.56 ± 1.11 years old) with different types of procrastination were recruited from the first and second years of a university using the General Procrastination Scale and the Active Procrastination Scale. A 3 (procrastination type: active procrastination, passive procrastination, non-procrastination) × 2 (group: exercise group, control group) × 2 (measurement time: pre-test, post-test) mixed experimental design was employed. All participants attended regular physical education classes as usual, while the exercise group participated in an 8 week aerobic exercise program. Before and after the intervention, the inhibition, updating, and switching sub-functions of executive function were assessed. Results: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) Active procrastinators and passive procrastinators showed significant differences in their inhibition scores, inhibition accuracy, updating scores, and updating accuracy (p &lt; 0.05). Non-procrastinators exhibited a significantly higher inhibition accuracy than passive procrastinators (p &lt; 0.05), while active procrastinators had a significantly higher updating accuracy than non-procrastinators (p &lt; 0.05). As can be seen, there were significant differences in inhibition and updating functions between active procrastinators and passive procrastinators, with passive procrastinators showing obvious deficiencies in their inhibition accuracy. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) After the intervention, the aerobic exercise group of non-procrastinators showed a significant reduction in their inhibition reaction time and updating reaction time (p &lt; 0.05). The passive procrastination in the exercise group showed significant improvements in switching accuracy and inhibition accuracy (p &lt; 0.05). The active procrastination in the exercise group showed a significant reduction in updating reaction time (p &lt; 0.05). From the above findings, it is clear that the eight-week aerobic exercise intervention has shown improvement effects on the executive function of college students with different procrastination types, and the extent of the improvement in each sub-function of executive function varies depending on the type of procrastination. Conclusion: This study reveals the relationship between exercise and the development of the sub-functions of executive function in college students with procrastination, further validating the effectiveness and feasibility of implementing exercise interventions in real-world school settings.</p> <p>Keywords: aerobic exercise; active procrastination; passive procrastination; non-procrastination; executive function</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-2">1. Introduction</hd> <p>With the rapid development of modern society, the issue of procrastination has become more severe and prominent. Procrastination is often regarded as a manifestation of self-regulation failure ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref3">41</reflink>]). Surveys indicate that 30–60% of college students frequently procrastinate ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref4">30</reflink>]). Based on the effects of the behavior, procrastination can be categorized into active procrastination and passive procrastination. Passive procrastinators often fall into a vicious cycle due to a lack of effective self-regulation, resulting in poor task completion quality and higher levels of anxiety and stress ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>]). Although both active and passive procrastinators exhibit irrational delays, active procrastinators demonstrate a greater focus in the later stages of tasks and are less affected by negative emotions compared to passive procrastinators ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref6">4</reflink>]), leading to better academic performance ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref7">36</reflink>]). Therefore, in-depth research into the cognitive differences between different types of procrastinators can provide a scientific basis for effectively addressing and preventing procrastination. Consequently, studying the cognitive differences among various types of procrastinators can offer scientific insights for managing and preventing procrastination.</p> <p>Numerous studies have shown that procrastinators may have issues with self-regulation, which can lead to excessive mental stress, physical stress responses, fatigue, sleep problems, and other physical and mental health-related issues ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref8">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref9">27</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref10">42</reflink>]). This can hinder the development of goal-oriented problem-solving strategies and executive actions, severely affecting work and academic achievements ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref11">43</reflink>]). Executive function is one of the key cognitive functions of self-regulation ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref12">16</reflink>]), representing a collection of the various cognitive functions of the brain, including inhibition (inhibitory control), switching (cognitive flexibility), and updating (working memory). These sub-functions work together to help individuals plan, initiate, and complete tasks. For procrastinators, deficits in executive function may lead to difficulties in task initiation, attentional distractions, and an inability to effectively manage time and resources, thereby exacerbating procrastination ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref13">47</reflink>]). Research has shown that procrastinators exhibit deficiencies in inhibition function ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref14">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref15">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref16">31</reflink>]), and both switching function and updating function can predict procrastination levels in college students ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref17">30</reflink>]). Studies by Wang Xuxiang and others have found that both active and passive procrastinators exhibit executive function deficits, with switching function deficits possibly being a key difference between active and passive procrastinators ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref18">43</reflink>]). Therefore, interventions for procrastination behavior can focus on deficits in executive functions.</p> <p>Exercise, as a specific form of physical activity, can promote both the physical and mental health of individuals and also change their behavioral habits and patterns. Research has found that individuals who engage in sufficient physical activity (more than 150 min per week) are less likely to demonstrate procrastination behavior ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref19">6</reflink>]), while less active students exhibit higher levels of procrastination behavior ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref20">46</reflink>]). In addition to the duration of physical activity, the intensity level of physical activity also affects the degree of procrastination. Shi et al. tested different levels of physical activity intensity (light, moderate, and high) and found that high-intensity physical activity reduces procrastination ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref21">37</reflink>]). Zhong and Chu also reported that individuals who engage in moderate- or high-intensity physical activity have significantly lower levels of procrastination than those who engage in low-intensity activity ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref22">46</reflink>]). It is evident that there is a significant negative correlation between physical activity and procrastination behavior. However, further experimental research is needed to investigate the impact of exercise (a specialized form of physical activity) on procrastination behavior among college students, particularly in relation to different types of procrastination.</p> <p>To date, most studies on the important role of physical activity in reducing procrastination have focused on aspects such as physical activity, self-efficacy, and self-control ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref23">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref24">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref25">48</reflink>]), and the role of executive function has not yet been fully recognized. Numerous studies have confirmed that exercise is an effective means to enhance and improve executive functions, with consistent findings suggesting that moderate-intensity aerobic exercise is the most beneficial for improving executive functions ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref26">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref27">23</reflink>]). Moderate-intensity aerobic exercise has been shown to effectively enhance adults' inhibition ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref28">44</reflink>]) and switching functions ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref29">15</reflink>]) and also has a positive impact on updating function ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref30">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref31">29</reflink>]). Previous research has shown that procrastinators often exhibit one or more deficiencies in their executive sub-functions, and different types of procrastinators may differ in their executive sub-functions. Given the central role of executive function in procrastination behavior and the potential benefits of physical exercise, clarifying how physical exercise improves executive function across different types of procrastinators can provide a scientific basis for developing personalized intervention programs. Furthermore, few studies have explored exercise interventions aimed at improving executive function among procrastinating college students, particularly in the context of school-based physical activity environments. Therefore, to fully understand the impact of physical exercise on executive function in various procrastination types, the following issues need to be addressed: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref32">1</reflink>) Can enhanced physical exercise reduce procrastination by improving executive functions? (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref33">2</reflink>) What are the differences in the effects of regular exercise on executive functions in college students with different types of procrastination? To explore these questions, this study investigated the effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on the three sub-components of executive function (updating, inhibition, and switching) in college students with different types of procrastination.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-3">2. Materials and Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183345938-4">2.1. Participants' Characteristics</hd> <p>This study selected students from several classes of public physical education courses in the first and second years of a university in Xi'an as the survey subjects. During theoretical class time, students were asked to complete two questionnaires: the General Procrastination Scale (GPS) and the New Active Procrastination Scale (NAPS). A total of 455 questionnaires were distributed and all were returned and valid. Based on the scoring criteria ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref34">10</reflink>]), the participants were categorized as passive procrastinators (GPS average score &gt; 3 and NAPS average score &gt; 4), totaling 67 students, active procrastinators (GPS average score &gt; 3 and NAPS average score ≤ 4), totaling 86 students, and non-procrastinators (GPS average score ≤ 3), totaling 302 students.</p> <p>A further assessment was conducted by phone recruitment, and ultimately, 62 passive procrastinators (12 male, 50 female, 18.65 ± 0.33 years old), 64 active procrastinators (12 male, 52 female, 19.64 ± 1.01 years old), and 64 non-procrastinators (12 male, 52 female, 19.75 ± 1.24 years old) were invited to participate. Based on the principle of having equal numbers of males in each group, the participants were randomly assigned according to different exercise intervention periods as follows: the passive procrastination group (29 students), the passive procrastination exercise group (33 students), the active procrastination group (32 students), the active procrastination exercise group (32 students), the non-procrastination group (32 students), and the non-procrastination exercise group (32 students). The inclusion criteria were as follows: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref35">1</reflink>) no history of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, neurological disorders, or genetic diseases; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref36">2</reflink>) normal or corrected vision, with no color blindness or color weakness; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref37">3</reflink>) normal intelligence and familiarity with basic computer operations; (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref38">4</reflink>) right-handed; (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref39">5</reflink>) no regular exercise habits; and (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref40">6</reflink>) no participation in similar studies.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-5">2.2. Experimental Design</hd> <p>A mixed experimental design was used: 3 (procrastination type: active procrastination, passive procrastination, non-procrastination) × 2 (exercise intervention: with exercise, without exercise) × 2 (measurement time: pre-test, post-test). This design allowed us to simultaneously investigate the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on the dependent variable. Procrastination type, measurement time, and exercise intervention were between-subject variables, and the reaction time and accuracy of executive function (inhibition, updating, and switching) were the dependent variables.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-6">2.3. Research Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183345938-7">2.3.1. Exercise Intervention Program</hd> <p>The exercise intervention program was designed according to the domestic standards for "physical activity levels" ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref41">3</reflink>]). The specific exercise plan for the exercise group was as follows: The exercise frequency was 3 times per week, with the exercise intensity set at 60–69% of the maximum heart rate (220—age). Each exercise session lasted 30 min, and the activity chosen was running. The exercise intervention lasted for 8 weeks. During the first week, participants were required to engage in low-intensity adaptive training (45–59% of the maximum heart rate (220—age). From the second week onward, the participants performed the exercises at the prescribed intensity. Before and after each exercise session, the participants were required to perform warm-up and cool-down activities. The control group did not receive any exercise intervention and maintained their normal lifestyle and academic routines without engaging in regular physical exercise for the 8 weeks, and the participants' daily physical activity levels were assessed through weekly verbal inquiries to monitor their exercise habits.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-8">2.3.2. Executive Function Testing</hd> <p>The testing of the three sub-functions of executive function is conducted on a laptop (14-inch screen with a resolution of 1366 × 768). All programs are written using the E-prime 2.0 system. The evaluation metrics are reaction time and accuracy rate. Lower reaction time test values and higher accuracy rates indicate the better performance of the function. The specific tasks for each of the three sub-functions are as follows:</p> <p>Inhibition Function—Stroop Task ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref42">28</reflink>]): Studies of the reliability and validity of the instrument show it is a good tool to measure inhibitory cognition with three increasingly complex tasks (congruent, neutral, and incongruent), showing a high intra-class correlation index for different temporal measures (&gt;0.90) ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref43">33</reflink>]). The experimental materials consisted of four colors ("Red", "Yellow", "Blue", "Green") and four words ("Red", "Green", "Yellow", "Blue"), which were randomly combined. Participants were required to quickly respond by pressing a key corresponding to the color of the word presented (e.g., red = "D", yellow = "F", blue = "J", green = "K"). The Stroop paradigm had two conditions: congruent (the color and the word meaning are the same) and incongruent (the color and the word meaning are different). The participant's performance was measured by their inhibition reaction time (incongruent reaction time minus congruent reaction time) and inhibition accuracy (congruent accuracy minus incongruent accuracy).</p> <p>Switching Function—More-odd Shifting Task ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref44">35</reflink>]): The task-switching paradigm offers enormous possibilities to study cognitive control with good reliability and validity ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref45">19</reflink>]). The experimental materials consisted of the numbers 1–9 (excluding 5). There were three types of judgments required: a. When black numbers were presented, participants were required to judge whether the number was smaller or larger than 5. If smaller, they pressed "F"; if larger, they pressed "J". b. When green numbers were presented, participants were required to judge whether the number was odd or even. If odd, they pressed "F"; if even, they pressed "J". c. When black or green numbers were presented, participants were required to switch between size and parity judgments and respond accordingly. The More-odd shifting paradigm was assessed by switching reaction time (switching reaction time − [(size reaction time + odd/even reaction time)/2]) and switching accuracy ([(size accuracy + odd/even accuracy)/2] − switching accuracy).</p> <p>Updating Function—N-back Task ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref46">39</reflink>]): The N-back task is a widely used standard measure of executive working memory in cognitive neuroscience with good reliability and validity ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref47">17</reflink>]). The experimental materials consisted of 26 English letters. There were two types of judgments: a. 1-back task: Starting from the second letter, participants were required to judge whether the current letter was the same as the previous letter. If it was the same, they pressed the "spacebar"; if different, they did nothing. b. 2-back task: Starting from the third letter, participants were required to judge whether the current letter was the same as the second-to-last letter. If it was the same, they pressed the "spacebar"; if different, they did nothing. The N-back paradigm was assessed by updating reaction time (2-back reaction time minus 1-back reaction time) and updating accuracy (1-back accuracy minus 2-back accuracy).</p> <p>Prior to the testing of each task, the test subject was instructed by the main examiner to practice the task until the test subject was no less than 85% correct, and then the formal testing began.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-9">2.4. Data Analysis</hd> <p>Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 22.0 software. The data were presented as mean ± standard deviation (M ± SD). A one-way ANOVA was used to analyze the developmental characteristics of executive functions among college students with different types of procrastination. Additionally, an independent sample t-test was used to test the homogeneity of executive function levels across the different groups before exercise. Three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was applied to analyze the effects of procrastination type, exercise intervention, and their interaction on executive functions (inhibition, switching, and updating). The calculations of the Sum of Squares and the degrees of freedom were used to evaluate the goodness of model fit and to conduct hypothesis testing. If the effects were significant, post-hoc comparisons were conducted using the Bonferroni method. The significance level for the statistical analysis was set at <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.05. For the reaction time analysis, data outside of M ± 3 SD were excluded.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-10">3. Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183345938-11">3.1. Analysis of Executive Function Sub-Skills in College Students with Different Types of Pr...</hd> <p>A one-way ANOVA analysis was conducted on the executive function of college students with active procrastination, passive procrastination, and non-procrastination to examine the developmental characteristics of executive functions in college students with different procrastination types. The results in Table 1 show that college students with active procrastination had higher inhibition, switching, and updating scores compared to college students with non-procrastination, while college students with passive procrastination had lower inhibition, switching, and updating scores than those with non-procrastination. Significant differences were found between active procrastination and passive procrastination college students in their inhibition scores and accuracy, as well as their updating scores and accuracy <emph>(p</emph> &lt; 0.05). In addition, the inhibition accuracy of college students with non-procrastination was significantly higher than that of college students with passive procrastination (<emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.05), and the updating accuracy of the active procrastination students was significantly higher than that of the college students with non-procrastination (<emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.05).</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-12">3.2. Homogeneity Test for Pre-Test Executive Function</hd> <p>Descriptive statistics of executive function before and after the exercise intervention in students with different types of procrastination are presented in Table 2.</p> <p>Independent sample <emph>t</emph>-tests were performed on the pre-test scores of the inhibition, switching, and updating functions between the exercise group and the control group for college students with active procrastination, passive procrastination, and non-procrastination.</p> <p>For the active procrastination college students, there were no significant differences in inhibition function (inhibition score: <emph>t</emph> = −0.345, <emph>p</emph> = 0.733; inhibition accuracy: <emph>t</emph> = −0.934, <emph>p</emph> = 0.361), switching function (switching score: <emph>t</emph> = 0.833, <emph>p</emph> = 0.414; switching accuracy: <emph>t</emph> = −1.675, <emph>p</emph> = 0.110), and updating function (updating score: <emph>t</emph> = 1.141, <emph>p</emph> = 0.267; updating accuracy: <emph>t</emph> = 0.098, <emph>p</emph> = 0.923), indicating that the levels of executive function were homogeneous before the intervention.</p> <p>For the passive procrastination college students, there were no significant differences in inhibition function (inhibition score: <emph>t</emph> = 0.031, <emph>p</emph> = 0.975; inhibition accuracy: <emph>t</emph> = 1.300, <emph>p</emph> = 0.205), switching function (switching score: <emph>t</emph> = −1.001, <emph>p</emph> = 0.325; switching accuracy: <emph>t</emph> = 0.260, <emph>p</emph> = 0.797), and updating function (updating score: <emph>t</emph> = 0.032, <emph>p</emph> = 0.975; updating accuracy: <emph>t</emph> = −0.225, <emph>p</emph> = 0.824), indicating that the levels of executive function were homogeneous before the intervention.</p> <p>Similarly, the for non-procrastination students, there were no significant differences in the pre-test scores in inhibition function (inhibition score: <emph>t</emph> = 0.093, <emph>p</emph> = 0.926; inhibition accuracy: <emph>t</emph> = 0.519, <emph>p</emph> = 0.609), switching function (switching score: <emph>t</emph> = −1.628, <emph>p</emph> = 0.117; switching accuracy: <emph>t</emph> = −0.150, <emph>p</emph> = 0.882), and updating function (updating score: <emph>t</emph> = −1.092, <emph>p</emph> = 0.286; updating accuracy: <emph>t</emph> = −0.672, <emph>p</emph> = 0.508), indicating homogeneity between the exercise and control groups before the intervention.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-13">3.3. Impact of Aerobic Exercise Intervention on Executive Function in Students with Different...</hd> <p>Three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was used to analyze the effects of the aerobic exercise intervention on executive functions in college students with active procrastination, passive procrastination, and non-procrastination (Table 3).</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-14">3.3.1. Interference Inhibition Task—Stroop Task</hd> <p>Repeated-measures ANOVA was performed on the reaction time and accuracy of the Stroop task to examine the intervention effects. The results of the intervention effects on the Stroop task and the other tasks are shown in Figure 1.</p> <p>For reaction time, the main effect of procrastination type was significant, F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref48">2</reflink>, 60) = 3.953, <emph>p</emph> = 0.034, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.264. Post-hoc comparisons revealed that college students with passive procrastination had shorter reaction times than those with active procrastination. The interaction between time and group was significant, F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref49">1</reflink>, 28) = 6.667, <emph>p</emph> = 0.025, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.377, and simple effects analysis showed that, compared to the non-procrastination control group, the reaction speed of the non-procrastination exercise group improved after the intervention, F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref50">1</reflink>, 28) = 6.128, <emph>p</emph> = 0.031, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.358, while the other five groups did not show an improvement.</p> <p>For accuracy, the interaction between group and type was significant: F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref51">2</reflink>, 28) = 4.895, <emph>p</emph> = 0.033, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.495. Simple effects analysis revealed that, after the exercise intervention, the inhibition accuracy of the non-procrastination control group was significantly different from that of the non-procrastination exercise group: F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref52">1</reflink>, 28) = 5.348, <emph>p</emph> = 0.041, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.327. The passive procrastination college students in the exercise group also showed a significant increase in inhibition accuracy compared to the control group: F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref53">1</reflink>, 28) = 5.101, <emph>p</emph> = 0.043, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.298.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-15">3.3.2. Cognitive Flexibility Task—More-Odd Shifting Task</hd> <p>A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted on the reaction times from the More-odd shifting task and found that there were no significant interactions between measurement time, type, and group. However, the main effect of measurement time was significant: F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref54">1</reflink>, 28) = 75.149, <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.001, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.883. Further post-hoc comparisons revealed that the non-procrastination type college students in the exercise group showed no difference in switching reaction times before and after the intervention, meaning that these students did not exhibit any effects on switching function due to the training. In contrast, for the other five groups of college students, their switching reaction times at the end of the experiment were significantly improved compared to before the experiment (<emph>p</emph>-values were 0.000, 0.007, 0.048, 0.004, 0.002; η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> values were 0.730, 0.504, 0.200, 0.521, 0.546, respectively).</p> <p>For accuracy, the interaction between type and time was significant: F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref55">2</reflink>, 28) = 7.332, <emph>p</emph> = 0.024, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.710. Simple effects analysis revealed that, by fixing the subject types to observe differences between the testing time, the control group of non-procrastinating college students showed a significant difference in switching accuracy before and after the intervention: F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref56">1</reflink>, 28) = 6.162, <emph>p</emph> = 0.027, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.322; and the exercise group of passive procrastinating college students significantly improved in switching accuracy before and after the intervention: F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref57">1</reflink>, 28) = 7.917, <emph>p</emph> = 0.017, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.419. By fixing the testing time to observe differences between the subject types, the results showed that at the end of the intervention, there was a significant difference in switching accuracy among college students of different procrastination types in the control group: F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref58">2</reflink>, 60) = 4.896, <emph>p</emph> = 0.019, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.329. Pairwise comparisons found that the switching accuracy of the non-procrastinating control group college students was significantly higher than that of the passive procrastinating control group college students (<emph>p</emph> = 0.022, 95% CI: [−0.160, −0.01374]).</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-16">3.3.3. Working Memory Update Task—N-Back Task</hd> <p>The results of the updating function test showed that in terms of reaction time, the main effect of group was highly significant, F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref59">1</reflink>, 28) = 8.131, <emph>p</emph> = 0.019, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.475, indicating that there was a significant difference in the updating function between the control and the exercise group of college students. The interaction between group and time was also significant, F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref60">1</reflink>, 28) = 7.544, <emph>p</emph> = 0.023, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.456, indicating that there were significant differences in the changes in updating function before and after the test among different groups of college students. Further simple effects tests revealed that by fixing the testing time to observe differences between the groups, the post-intervention tests revealed that the exercise group of active procrastination college students exhibited significantly shorter updating reaction times compared to the control group of active procrastination college students: F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref61">1</reflink>, 28) = 43.250, <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.001, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.797. By fixing the group constant to observe differences between the testing times, the updating reaction time of the active procrastinators in the exercise group was significantly shorter in the post-test than in the pre-test: F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref62">1</reflink>, 28) = 5.309, <emph>p</emph> = 0.042, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.326; and the updating reaction time of non-procrastinators in the exercise group was also significantly shorter in the post-test than in the pre-test: F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref63">1</reflink>, 28) = 4.958, <emph>p</emph> = 0.048, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.311.</p> <p>For accuracy, the interaction between type, time, and group was significant: F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref64">2</reflink>, 28) = 7.986, <emph>p</emph> = 0.012, η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups> = 0.666. Further simple effects analysis revealed that there were no significant simple two-way interactions.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-17">4. Discussion and Analysis</hd> <p>This study examined the differences in executive function among college students with different types of procrastination, as well as the effects of exercise on improving executive function in these students. The results indicate that the key difference between active procrastination and passive procrastination is in the inhibition and updating functions, with passive procrastinators showing significant deficiencies in inhibition accuracy. After eight weeks of exercise training, aerobic exercise was found to significantly improve inhibition reaction times and updating reaction times in non-procrastinators, significantly improve switching accuracy and inhibition accuracy in passive procrastinators, and significantly improve updating reaction times in active procrastinators.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-18">4.1. Differences in Executive Function Among College Students with Different Types of Procras...</hd> <p>The most fundamental difference between active procrastination and passive procrastination lies in whether the behavior is a rational tendency. Active procrastination has a minimal negative impact on individuals. In this study, college students with active procrastination demonstrated superior executive function, with significantly better inhibition and updating abilities than passive procrastinators, and a higher updating accuracy than non-procrastinators. Chu and Choi emphasize that active procrastination is a voluntary choice made after careful consideration, where procrastinators have good self-control, can effectively manage their time, and ensure tasks are completed accurately and efficiently ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref65">5</reflink>]). Procrastination is seen as an effective strategy to avoid impulsiveness. Similarly, Lu Cuiyan et al. also consider active procrastination as an active behavior, where individuals can motivate themselves to reach their full potential under time pressures ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref66">25</reflink>]). Passive procrastination, on the other hand, is a negative form of procrastination. This study confirmed some of Wang Xuxiang et al.'s findings, indicating that passive procrastinators exhibit deficiencies in their inhibition and updating functions ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref67">43</reflink>]). Furthermore, we also found that active procrastinator college students showed a significantly lower inhibition accuracy than non-procrastinator students, which corroborates the conclusions of Rabin et al. ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref68">30</reflink>]), Gustavson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref69">31</reflink>]), and Rebetez et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref70">13</reflink>]). These studies suggest that, compared to active procrastinators and non-procrastinators, passive procrastinators lack sufficient cognitive control, leading to poorer executive function. Moreover, according to Gustavson et al.'s analysis, the switching and working memory functions are unrelated to procrastination ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref71">13</reflink>]). Our results support this by showing no statistical difference in the switching sub-function between procrastinator and non-procrastinator college students.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-19">4.2. Effects of Exercise on Different Sub-Functions of Executive Function in College Students...</hd> <p>The inhibition function is a core component of executive function. Previous behavioral and neuroimaging studies have suggested that procrastination behavior is generally caused by a failure of self-regulation or by avoidance coping strategies ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref72">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref73">21</reflink>]). Compared to non-procrastinators, procrastinators tend to have weaker cognitive control leading to more impulsive behaviors. Numerous studies have found that exercise can have a positive effect on inhibition control. For example, Kamijo et al. found that moderate-intensity acute aerobic exercise (cycling) significantly improved inhibition control abilities and individual attention ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref74">18</reflink>]). Yang Yongtao et al.'s study also found that moderate-intensity sustained aerobic exercise (stair climbing) significantly enhanced inhibition control abilities in college students ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref75">45</reflink>]). In this study, after eight weeks of aerobic exercise intervention (running), we found that exercise significantly shortened inhibition reaction times in non-procrastinator college students, and significantly improved inhibition accuracy in active procrastinator college students.</p> <p>In terms of behavior, both updating and inhibition require the suppression of irrelevant information ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref76">26</reflink>]). Some studies have found that working memory updating can significantly predict procrastination behavior in college students ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref77">30</reflink>]). Gai Xiaosong et al. found that after one-time training, the intensity of exercise in body-sensory games improved children's executive function, especially their working memory ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref78">11</reflink>]). In our study, after the exercise intervention, both non-procrastinators and active procrastinator college students showed significant improvements in updating reaction times. Active procrastination can be seen as a form of proactive procrastination, allowing individuals to develop more effective strategies or plans, and our results support the notion that exercise enhances updating function. However, we did not find improvements in the updating function of passive procrastinator college students, which may be related to the high correlation between working memory and self-control. In addition, individual baseline cognitive abilities (such as working memory and executive function) and motivation levels may be important confounding variables that affect their response to the exercise interventions. For example, individuals with higher cognitive abilities and highly motivated students may benefit more from exercise because they have richer cognitive resources, participate more actively in exercise interventions, and can better integrate the positive effects of exercise ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref79">40</reflink>]). Conversely, students with lower baseline cognitive abilities and low motivation may show less improvement in exercise interventions because they have limited cognitive resources, lower interest in exercise interventions, and insufficient participation, leading to less effective intervention outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref80">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref81">34</reflink>]). Colcombe et al. noted in their meta-analysis that aerobic exercise has selective effects on executive function, and different types of exercise have varying impacts on executive functions ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref82">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Switching ability involves using competing cognitive resources between two tasks and is the individual's ability to shift between different perspectives to adapt to changing environmental demands ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref83">9</reflink>]). Compared to updating function, switching function requires more cognitive resources, and therapy reflects cognitive processing advantages. Studies have found that 24 weeks of soccer training made the experimental group's switching reaction time faster ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref84">8</reflink>]), and 8 weeks of swimming training improved children's cognitive flexibility ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref85">38</reflink>]). Moreover, exercise can promote the release of dopamine neurotransmitters, which regulate cognitive flexibility and influence switching ability ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref86">20</reflink>]), and moderate-intensity acute aerobic exercise can significantly enhance individual focus ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref87">24</reflink>]). In our study, after the exercise intervention, passive procrastinator college students showed significant improvement in switching ability, likely due to both the exercise itself and the task demands of the exercise.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-20">5. Conclusions</hd> <p>In summary, this study employed a standard experimental paradigm to systematically and comprehensively examine the effects of aerobic exercise on the executive function of college students with different types of procrastination. It was found that significant differences exist in the inhibition and updating functions between active procrastinators and passive procrastinators, with passive procrastinators exhibiting notable deficiencies in inhibition accuracy. Furthermore, aerobic exercise significantly enhances the inhibition and updating sub-functions in non-procrastinating college students. Additionally, the aerobic exercise intervention positively improves updating reaction times in active procrastinators and enhances the inhibition accuracy and switching ability in passive procrastinators. These results demonstrate that aerobic exercise can effectively promote the development of executive function in college students, with varying effects depending on the type of procrastination. This finding provides a new approach for targeted exercise interventions tailored to different types of procrastinators and carries significant theoretical and practical implications.</p> <p>Meanwhile, it is necessary to recognize that this study has some limitations that should be addressed in future research. Firstly, the intervention duration (8 weeks) for different types of procrastinators may not capture the long-term effects, and the cumulative effects of the intervention remain unclear. In follow-up studies, we will further observe the sustainability of the intervention effects. Secondly, self-reported measures (e.g., the General Procrastination Scale) may introduce potential biases. Future research could incorporate more objective measurement methods. Thirdly, future research needs to further explore other factors (such as gender, cultural differences, and coping strategies) that influence the effects of exercise on executive function in different types of procrastinators. This will help to strictly control the relevant variables and ensure the rigor and scientific validity of experiments. Finally, it is necessary to consider incorporating other forms of exercise (such as resistance training or mindfulness-based physical activities) to identify effective exercise interventions for improving procrastination behaviors.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-21">Figure and Tables</hd> <p>Graph: Figure 1 Changes in the executive function trends of college students with different types of procrastination before and after the eight week exercise intervention. Inhibition sub-function: assessed through the Stroop task by calculating the inhibitory reaction time and inhibitory accuracy. Switching sub-function: assessed through the More-odd shifting task by calculating the switching reaction time and switching accuracy. Updating sub-function: assessed through the N-back task by calculating the updating reaction time and updating accuracy.</p> <p>Table 1 Comparison of executive function scores among college students with different types of procrastination (M ± SD).</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Function&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" /&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Active Procrastination Group (&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt; = 64)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Passive Procrastination Group (&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt; = 62)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Non-Procrastination Group (&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt; = 64)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;F-Value&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;&lt;italic&gt;p&lt;/italic&gt;-Value&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Inhibition&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Inhibition Reaction Time (ms)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;184.941 &amp;#177; 120.023&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;85.462 &amp;#177; 186.645&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;113.23 &amp;#177; 90.56&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;3.167&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.048&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Inhibition Accuracy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.966 &amp;#177; 0.041&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.944 &amp;#177; 0.031&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.972 &amp;#177; 0.032&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;4.854&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.010&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Switching&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Switching Reaction Time (ms)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;344.125 &amp;#177; 135.564&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;296.766 &amp;#177; 148.587&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;326.308 &amp;#177; 171.582&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.692&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.504&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Switching Accuracy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.930 &amp;#177; 0.028&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.915 &amp;#177; 0.048&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.937 &amp;#177; 0.044&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;1.884&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.159&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Updating&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Updating Reaction Time (ms)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;159.391 &amp;#177; 122.593&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;90.871 &amp;#177; 118.419&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;119.846 &amp;#177; 117.128&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;2.279&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.120&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Updating Accuracy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.963 &amp;#177; 0.028&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.934 &amp;#177; 0.044&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.929 &amp;#177; 0.046&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;3.823&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.026&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 2 Descriptive statistics of executive function at two measurement time points (M ± SD).</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan="2" align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Executive Function&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Active Procrastination Group (&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt; = 32)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Active Procrastination Exercise Group (&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt; = 32)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Passive Procrastination Group (&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt; = 29)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Passive Procrastination Exercise Group (&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt; = 33)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Non-Procrastination Group (&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt; = 32)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="center" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Non-Procrastination Exercise Group (&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt; = 32)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Inhibition Reaction Time (ms)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Pre-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;152.645 &amp;#177; 135.804&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;172.405 &amp;#177; 144.608&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;78.411 &amp;#177; 186.671&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;84.114 &amp;#177; 189.360&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;139.524 &amp;#177; 94.195&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;121.425 &amp;#177; 117.032&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Post-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;209.327 &amp;#177; 159.818&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;163.681 &amp;#177; 128.356&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;92.247 &amp;#177; 181.933&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;37.653 &amp;#177; 133.374&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;158.670 &amp;#177; 104.918&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;31.159 &amp;#177; 138.225&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Inhibition Accuracy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Pre-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.958 &amp;#177; 0.047&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.987 &amp;#177; 0.018&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.951 &amp;#177; 0.018&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.946 &amp;#177; 0.016&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.987 &amp;#177; 0.015&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.956 &amp;#177; 0.053&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Post-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.947 &amp;#177; 0.050&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.979 &amp;#177; 0.016&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.947 &amp;#177; 0.051&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.981 &amp;#177; 0.012&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.979 &amp;#177; 0.013&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.966 &amp;#177; 0.018&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Switching Reaction Time (ms)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Pre-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;383.591 &amp;#177; 142.446&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;312.318 &amp;#177; 127.358&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;276.909 &amp;#177; 182.227&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;332.227 &amp;#177; 127.537&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;377.636 &amp;#177; 184.667&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;284.818 &amp;#177; 158.102&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Post-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;171.590 &amp;#177; 121.433&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;176.409 &amp;#177; 63.889&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;227.954 &amp;#177; 167.743&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;231.727 &amp;#177; 90.838&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;201.636 &amp;#177; 150.180&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;240.227 &amp;#177; 119.209&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Switching Accuracy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Pre-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.904 &amp;#177; 0.016&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.951 &amp;#177; 0.030&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.940 &amp;#177; 0.034&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.938 &amp;#177; 0.031&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.912 &amp;#177; 0.087&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.940 &amp;#177; 0.013&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Post-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.960 &amp;#177; 0.013&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.946 &amp;#177; 0.054&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.925 &amp;#177; 0.034&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.956 &amp;#177; 0.023&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.969 &amp;#177; 0.022&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.943 &amp;#177; 0.027&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Updating Reaction Time (ms)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Pre-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;195.000 &amp;#177; 144.230&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;121.700 &amp;#177; 94.218&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;139.100 &amp;#177; 102.952&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;66.300 &amp;#177; 118.373&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;106.100 &amp;#177; 145.914&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;152.100 &amp;#177; 110.321&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Post-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;222.200 &amp;#177; 101.808&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;47.900 &amp;#177; 112.838&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;134.300 &amp;#177; 70.419&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;57.400 &amp;#177; 111.904&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;124.800 &amp;#177; 124.144&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;48.100 &amp;#177; 90.478&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Updating Accuracy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;Pre-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.955 &amp;#177; 0.021&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.955 &amp;#177; 0.033&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.895 &amp;#177; 0.041&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.945 &amp;#177; 0.045&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.955 &amp;#177; 0.033&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle"&gt;0.935 &amp;#177; 0.055&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Post-test&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.950 &amp;#177; 0.040&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.985 &amp;#177; 0.014&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.955 &amp;#177; 0.027&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.925 &amp;#177; 0.061&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.960 &amp;#177; 0.038&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.980 &amp;#177; 0.021&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 3 Overview of variance analysis on the impact of the exercise intervention on executive function in students with different types of procrastination.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Type III Sum of Squares&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;&lt;italic&gt;df&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Mean Square&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;&lt;italic&gt;F&lt;/italic&gt;-Value&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" style="border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;&lt;italic&gt;p&lt;/italic&gt;-Value&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Inhibition Reaction Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;48,570.467&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;48,570.467&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.435&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.256&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;250,761.949&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;125,380.975&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;3.953&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.034 *&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;3112.273&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;3112.273&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.153&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.703&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;24,217.405&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;12,108.702&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.590&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.563&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;55,278.711&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;55,278.711&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;6.667&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.025 *&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;22,154.692&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;11,077.346&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.527&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.597&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;4374.861&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2187.431&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.125&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.883&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Inhibition Accuracy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.985&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.218&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.003&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.089&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.373&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.129&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.734&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.009&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.004&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;4.895&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.033 *&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.194&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.324&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.976&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.410&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.689&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.524&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Switching Reaction Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;3477.320&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;3477.320&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.128&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.728&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;5069.140&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2534.570&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.069&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.934&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;472,503.835&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;472,503.835&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;75.149&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.000 **&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;26,356.163&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;13,178.081&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.519&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.603&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;22,295.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;22,295.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.925&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.195&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;55,599.966&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;27,799.983&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2.402&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.116&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;48,421&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;24,210.775&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2.340&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.122&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Switching Accuracy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.526&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.521&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.517 &amp;#215; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;7.583 &amp;#215; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.004&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.996&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.004&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.004&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2.341&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.223&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.297&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.753&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.289&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.339&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;7.332&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.024 *&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.006&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.003&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2.329&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.178&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Updating Reaction Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;152,653.333&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;152,653.333&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;80,131&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.019 *&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;51,153.817&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;25,576.908&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.782&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.197&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;17,666.133&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;17,666.133&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.284&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.286&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;58,992.517&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;29,496.258&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2.197&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.140&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;43,244.033&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;43,244.033&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;7.544&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.023 *&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;6422.217&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;3211.108&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.374&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.693&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;19,938.717&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;9969.358&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.782&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.472&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Updating Accuracy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.228&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.330&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.012&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.006&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.862&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.217&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.006&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.006&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;5.781&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.074&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.168&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.849&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.042 &amp;#215; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;1.042 &amp;#215; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.026&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.880&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.161&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle"&gt;0.854&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;Group &amp;#215; Type &amp;#215; Time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.012&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.006&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;7.986&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom:solid thin"&gt;0.012 *&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> Note: * <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.05, ** <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.01.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-22">Author Contributions</hd> <p>C.L. wrote the main manuscript text and designed the study, and J.Z. collected data, analyzed data, and prepared the tables. C.L. and J.Z. supervised the study. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-23">Institutional Review Board Statement</hd> <p>The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Xi'an International Studies University (date of approval: 15 May 2024).</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-24">Informed Consent Statement</hd> <p>Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-25">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-26">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> <hd id="AN0183345938-27">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>The authors would like to thank the college students for participating in this study.</p> <ref id="AN0183345938-28"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Disclaimer/Publisher's Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). 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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function: A Comparative Study Among Active, Passive, and Non-Procrastinating College Students – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chentao+Liu%22">Chentao Liu</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Juanjuan+Zhang%22">Juanjuan Zhang</searchLink> – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: Behavioral Sciences, Vol 15, Iss 2, p 225 (2025) – Name: Publisher Label: Publisher Information Group: PubInfo Data: MDPI AG, 2025. – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Year Group: Date Data: 2025 – Name: Subset Label: Collection Group: HoldingsInfo Data: LCC:Psychology – Name: Subject Label: Subject Terms Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22aerobic+exercise%22">aerobic exercise</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22active+procrastination%22">active procrastination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22passive+procrastination%22">passive procrastination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22non-procrastination%22">non-procrastination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22executive+function%22">executive function</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychology%22">Psychology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22BF1-990%22">BF1-990</searchLink> – Name: Abstract Label: Description Group: Ab Data: Objective: This study aims to explore the effects of an aerobic exercise intervention on the executive functions of active, passive, and non-procrastinating college students. Methods: A total of 190 college students (36 male, 154 female, 19.56 ± 1.11 years old) with different types of procrastination were recruited from the first and second years of a university using the General Procrastination Scale and the Active Procrastination Scale. A 3 (procrastination type: active procrastination, passive procrastination, non-procrastination) × 2 (group: exercise group, control group) × 2 (measurement time: pre-test, post-test) mixed experimental design was employed. All participants attended regular physical education classes as usual, while the exercise group participated in an 8 week aerobic exercise program. Before and after the intervention, the inhibition, updating, and switching sub-functions of executive function were assessed. Results: (1) Active procrastinators and passive procrastinators showed significant differences in their inhibition scores, inhibition accuracy, updating scores, and updating accuracy (p < 0.05). Non-procrastinators exhibited a significantly higher inhibition accuracy than passive procrastinators (p < 0.05), while active procrastinators had a significantly higher updating accuracy than non-procrastinators (p < 0.05). As can be seen, there were significant differences in inhibition and updating functions between active procrastinators and passive procrastinators, with passive procrastinators showing obvious deficiencies in their inhibition accuracy. (2) After the intervention, the aerobic exercise group of non-procrastinators showed a significant reduction in their inhibition reaction time and updating reaction time (p < 0.05). The passive procrastination in the exercise group showed significant improvements in switching accuracy and inhibition accuracy (p < 0.05). The active procrastination in the exercise group showed a significant reduction in updating reaction time (p < 0.05). From the above findings, it is clear that the eight-week aerobic exercise intervention has shown improvement effects on the executive function of college students with different procrastination types, and the extent of the improvement in each sub-function of executive function varies depending on the type of procrastination. Conclusion: This study reveals the relationship between exercise and the development of the sub-functions of executive function in college students with procrastination, further validating the effectiveness and feasibility of implementing exercise interventions in real-world school settings. – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: article – Name: Format Label: File Description Group: SrcInfo Data: electronic resource – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 2076-328X – Name: NoteTitleSource Label: Relation Group: SrcInfo Data: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/15/2/225; https://doaj.org/toc/2076-328X – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.3390/bs15020225 – Name: URL Label: Access URL Group: URL Data: <link linkTarget="URL" linkTerm="https://doaj.org/article/72f13b82f5bd41409c2cda4dc910167d" linkWindow="_blank">https://doaj.org/article/72f13b82f5bd41409c2cda4dc910167d</link> – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: edsdoj.72f13b82f5bd41409c2cda4dc910167d |
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| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.3390/bs15020225 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 1 StartPage: 225 Subjects: – SubjectFull: aerobic exercise Type: general – SubjectFull: active procrastination Type: general – SubjectFull: passive procrastination Type: general – SubjectFull: non-procrastination Type: general – SubjectFull: executive function Type: general – SubjectFull: Psychology Type: general – SubjectFull: BF1-990 Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function: A Comparative Study Among Active, Passive, and Non-Procrastinating College Students Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Chentao Liu – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Juanjuan Zhang IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 02 Type: published Y: 2025 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 2076328X Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 15 – Type: issue Value: 2 Titles: – TitleFull: Behavioral Sciences Type: main |
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